Realism Vs Liberalism And Issues In World Politics Politics Essay

Realism Vs Liberalism And Issues In World Politics Politics Essay The behavior and the different relations between states have always been difficult to grasp, understand, and to explain. Looking back at the historical events and comparing them to the current international issues, there are many parallels to be noted as well as many contradictions in the ever changing global arena. Due to the complexity of the world, there have been many attempts at creating a system to be able to explain the way the international relations unfold and function. Many theories have been produced, many have failed and a few have been proven to be the closest to the truth. This paper will discuss the two most predominant theoretical systems currently existent realism and liberalism. It will further compare the two schools of thought, examining the gaps and the advantages of each one looking back at historical events, including the two World Wars and the Cold War, and the current global environment. In order to better examine each theory and to apply it to the past or current events, one must first understand the essential background and arguments behind each theory. Classical realism took place at a very dark time in Europe. Inter state conflicts were occurring on regular basis, poverty was seen everywhere, there was little hope for the future and essentially violence was always a logical step in order to fulfill ones goal whether it being an individualistic goal or that of the state. Philosophers such as Machiavelli and Hobbes painted a dark, pessimistic picture of the world with almost no hope for a peaceful future. While the two scholars lived in different times and in different places of Europe both have rationalized in a similar manner. Just like other realists, they saw human nature as being essentially evil and selfish, they believed that military readiness at all times was essential, and that peaceful cooperation between states was only possible through the balance of power on the global scale. Through great minds such as Machiavelli and Hobbes came many followers supporting similar ideas and what is known now as realism was created. The key elements behind this particular theoretical system lie in the belief in anarchy, evil human nature, military power and the importance and the power of a state. It is a theory based on the assumptions that the behavior between states is selfish and relies on a self-help system, thus you cannot hope for a mutual cooperation and must only help yourself. It states that countries just look out for their own interests, which makes the state the most important actor or the ultimate power for this theory. Also it is essential for states to be prepared for any conflict or war, thus military power of the state is also one of the main goals, even more important than economic power. Realism looks at the world power as an anarchist and believes in relative gains, meaning some participant benefit more than others. In other words, a realist will not s ettle for an exchange or a relationship in which the other participant will gain more due to the fact that it inevitably puts the state in a weak and risky position. Thus, the core points of concentration of realism are the anarchical state of the world, the brutality of human nature, and the importance of power of the state. In other words, realists do not look to change the world, they believe in seeing the world for what it is and working with it to create the best possible outcome to fulfill self-benefiting interests. Liberalism, on the other hand, paints a completely different outlook on the world. It looks down on the pessimistic ways of the realists and argues for the possibility of a brighter future and more peaceful world. Classical liberalism took place during the age of Enlightenment where the dark years of Europe were hoped to be put behind. The pioneers of liberalism, such as Rousseau and Kant, refused to believe that human nature was evil. Instead, they argued that it is in the nature of human beings to be cooperative and to be able to achieve solutions in a negotiating peaceful manner  [1]  . Thus, war was not the next logical step to a conflict or disagreement; it was only a matter of providing the proper tools for the individuals and states to be able to come to a peaceful, mutually benefitting resolution to any conflicting situation. It is a theory based on the assumption that countries believe in progress and sets not only states, but also the individuals and international insti tutions as the most valuable actors in international relations. This theory believes in the cooperation and unity of human kind, and thus is extremely against military power. Instead, liberalism strongly believes in international institutions and institutionalized peace in the world. In other words, liberals are very optimistic and believe that the use of military power is never justified. Also, this theory believes in absolute gains, meaning all participants become better off. Liberals state that there is no reason why a state or an individual should not engage in a relationship or an exchange in which the other party will benefit more, due to the fact that both participants will be at an absolute gain. Further, liberals, unlike realists, do not support the idea of zero-sum game. In a conflicting situation, no party needs to be at a complete loss; the conflict could be resolved within a judicial way in which both parties could reach an agreement to benefit each other.  [2]   As mentioned previously, liberalism highly believes in cooperation with collective gains. This idea is followed by the belief in strong international institutions to provide not only conflict resolutions tools for the states, but also to create a complex international interdependence, which creates a strong global bond and further ensures international peace. Due to the fact that liberals put such importance on international institutions, the roles of the state could be seen as less when compared to the realists view. Through the importance of institutions, the transnational bonds and dependence is created, which is also highly important to the liberal school of though.  [3]   While realists believe that the approach to peace should be done through the balance of power and military readiness and strength, liberals have a complete opposite point of view. The amount of power and military control that the state achieves will not bring global or state peace. Rather, the liberals propose peace through democratization, in which citizens are given individual freedom and the right to have a say in the states actions; and through the establishment of international law, which would be enforced through the international institutions and organization  [4]  . Another approach to peace that the liberals suggest is through the opening of the markets and the promotion of free international trade. One of the first advocates for this idea was the philosopher and economist Adam Smith. He stated that if markets are left untouched by the state, the invisible hand of the economy would guide them to the most productive and beneficial outcome. The term he used was laissez-faire, which essentially means to leave the market untouched to function on its own  [5]  . Through this powerful idea years later the new version of liberalism was created, called the neo-liberalism. These particular liberals still held the same core believes as the classical liberals, however with a much stronger concentration on the international economy with a much weaker role of the states  [6]  . Based on these two brief definitions, it is observed how much both theories contradict each other, in other words, liberalism and realism have very different approaches to explaining and understanding the world and the way it functions. However, both theories have proven their points of view along the years with critical events that have already occurred in the past and that have drastically changed the worlds history. Both theories have gaps and advantages to fulfill each others gaps. Realism fails to explain the diminishing importance of the transnational connections, a world that is slowly becoming borderless. In addition, until the creating of neo-realism, realists did not give much importance or explanation to the ever growing number of international institutions and organizations. Liberals on the other hand do provide a strong explanation of the factors mentioned above; however fail to explain the occurrence of so many conflicts, even with peace making international organizatio ns in place; nor are they able to explain the rise of poverty and the great inequality in the world. Both theories provide strong points of view and the next portion of this paper will look how both theories thrive in the explanation of historical and current events or drastically fail giving in to the opposing theoretical system. Prior to discussing which theory best describes and explains the period of Cold War, it is crucial to comprehend the events leading up to the situation which made the Cold War possible. Thus, the two World Wars must be looked at through both theoretical systems in order to conclude which theory was most prominent at the time. The devastation produced by World War I was evident to the entire world and left a horrific picture behind. It started when the Archduke Ferdinand from the Austrian-Hungarian Empire was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist seeking to free his ethnic group from the Austrian rule  [7]  . However, this death was really just the excuse for many political conflicts and hostilities between states going on at the time to unfold. These conflicts lead to a disastrous view of Europe, where more than ten million soldiers lost their lives and three big empires collapsed. As well as the rise of the Soviet Union and the formation of the League of Nations were also the consequences of this war, which completely changed the face of Europe and the world. World War I was the perfect event for the realists to prove their assumptions of the worlds behavior. Germany, one of the most preponderant states at the time, strived for the success that England achieved with the Industrial Revolution. This led Germany to look for more power trying to expand their territory and becoming more predominant on the global scale. In other words, Germany was only serving its own national interest, rather than global, using military power without thinking of the consequences that this could bring to others or how would others be affected. This perfectly supports the realist theory. Also, realists defensive arguments evidence that the cult of offensive school, interpretations of the World War I origins, is wrong because World War I was not an effect of a defensive attack, since Germans understood the tactical advantages of the strategic defense level and they already expected a long war. In other words, Germans went to World War I with eyes wide open  [8]   . For liberals, on the other hand, World War I was just the war to end all wars. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was also convinced that another devastating war could occur if the states recommence practicing power politics, thus liberals tried to reform the global system by taking several actions. One of the actions was to create global institutions in order to contain the raw struggle for power. At the end of World War I, the League of Nations was created, which was the incarnation of this part of the liberal thought  [9]  . However, the liberal thought collapsed and the realist assumptions rose once again when World War II erupted. When World War II initiated it gave the opportunity to the realists to prove that war is inevitable and that human nature is evil and violent. After World War I, the Germans were forced to look for an exit of the severe situation, probably the worst situation ever, which they were facing due to the consequences that this war brought upon them. After the First World War, most European states blamed Germany for all the disaster caused in Europe and thus they humiliated Germany under the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 promoted international laws, international institutions such as the League of Nations, and fairness to all the damaged countries emphasizing stability and cooperation, which seemed to be an ideal move for the liberal thought. However, once this treaty implemented, the outcome of the behavior of the states turned out to actually prove the realist school of thought yet again. Thus, in theory this was a liberal movement, but in practice it turned out t o be realist due to that everyone was actually just looking for their own interest and using this as an excuse to obtain benefits for their own, for example, the division of Europe. Once again, it was a state against another state fighting for the most gains in order to be at the top of the anarchical international system. The Cold War was the transition of power of the two global powers at the end of World War II, United States of America and the Soviet Union  [10]  . The Cold War was an event where both states fight to have the best power ratio of military capabilities without ending in a disastrous scenario such as what happened in the first and second world wars, where millions of lives were lost and cities were devastated. However, this war could had have ended in the worst scenario that the world would have ever experienced, due to that technology and military research were at the peak of worlds history and also these two had exponentially raised due to the previous wars. In addition, not only Europe would have been involved in this war, since this war not only consisted of having the most military power, but also the most networking or the relationships with other countries  [11]  . In other words, if one country would have attack the other, then they would had been attacking the allied countries as well, which at the time not only involved European countries and strong Asian countries, but world wide. This war was also a fight between liberalism and realism, due to that all the disputes between both countries were fought with the intervention of international politics and international institutions, but at the same time each country was also preparing for war by the development and research of new military weapons. However, this was a silent war since none of both states ever openly announced that the actions were taken in order to take precautions of the rival countrys actions. Nevertheless, the world knew what was going on. This war was an event that raised several critiques against the liberal thought, since the military concerns of both of these states, the will of the global power and the hostility shown between each other, were all clear signs of a third world war. There was no reason to doubt it, since history was being repeated. As the League of Nations wa s created by the liberals in attempt to avoid another world war, Germany was gaining enough power in its realist way, overpowering any international institutions to start another world war. This time, following the disastrous events of WWII, another attempt by the liberals was made in creating the United Nations and yet again the two hostile blocs the Soviet Union and the United States were able to overpower the newly established international institution and started their own silent war recreating an anarchical global environment. Therefore, there was no reason why a war could not occur, if this previous event proved that no matter what actions taken, a state could do what ever it wished. In other words, the United States of America or the Soviet Union could have easily gone over the United Nations decisions, since there was no other state with the military and economic capacity that could overpower their wishes  [12]  . Thus, the realist assumptions of the world proved itself to be true. The liberals, of course, would argue that due to the existence of such institutions as the United Nations an actual war never occurred on the soil of either one of superpowers. In the liberal point of view, the UN was definitely a factor in avoiding the war. This was not known for a fact until the end of the Cold War in 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. At this point, the global arena proved that peace could be achieved by international negotiations, international institutions regulating the disputes and most importantly making rational decisions. The world proved that human nature is not totally evil or violent and that there still exists some hope for the world to prove that liberal assumptions of the international relations are not entirely wrong. It is evident that the realist assumptions and predictions were predominant even throughout the Cold War, but it was also clear that the liberals had a point there was room for progress. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of Cold War began to reshape international politics and relations. While through the century realism seemed to have been in the lead in its explanations and descriptions of the structure of the world, the global environment all of a sudden began to drastically change and liberalism began to make sense yet again  [13]  . There are still many controversies about which theoretical system best describes the contemporary global politics and interstate relations. While realism was clearly much more accurate in the descriptions of the world throughout most of the 20th century, this paper will argue that liberalism is much more precise in the explanations and its understanding of the world when it comes to current issues. The first aspect that should be noted is the vast amount of international organizations and institutions that is currently existent and is constantly on the rise. These organizations vary from international humanitarian aid (ex. World Vision), to peace keeping and conflict resolution (ex. United Nations), to regulations of international trade (ex. WTO), and many more. These are a perfect example of transnational unifications, which are absolutely borderless and are extremely powerful on the global arena. Thus, the belief of realism that the state is the most important actor in the global system is disproven. There are other actors, that are equally, if not more important than the role of the state. These organizations believe in progress and in making a difference in the world, therefore human nature is not necessarily evil. In fact, there are more and more individuals that come together and dedicate their lives in order to help others. Another interesting phenomenon which has been happening is the decline of interstate conflicts but an outburst of intrastate conflicts. While these conflicts do prove that human beings are still capable of horrific crimes, it also proves that the state is no longer a central factor. These are groups of individuals that are bound by religion, society, a common goal or something other than being a part of the same state. Further in these cases, the state itself cannot control what is happening in its own country. Such conflicts still exist and especially were numerous in the 1990s; such as the genocide in Rwanda, Somalia or the horrific process of the collapse of former Yugoslavia  [14]  . These conflicts bring another interesting factor the organizations and the individuals from all over the world, which come together to help the war-torn place; starting from conflict resolution, to peace keeping, to after the conflict humanitarian and developmental aid. These individuals not onl y dedicate their lives to such careers, but in most cases risk losing their own lives. This is a further proof that while global peace is not achieved, human nature is not evil in most cases. Thus, progress is not only possible, but also extremely achievable. Democracy is another aspect that liberals strongly promote. In the past two decade more and more states have been trying to implement democratic ways of governing their states. Most of the former Soviet states have been moving towards achieving that goal, some have even successfully transformed their political systems and have entered the European Union, such as the Baltic States (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia)  [15]  . In addition, liberals strongly believe in democratic peace thesis that states that democratic countries will not go to war against each other. This theory is greatly proven over time as most of the Western world is democratic and has not experienced great conflicts since World War II.  [16]   While both theories provide strong and credible explanations of the way the global interactions occur and unfold, it is always crucial to keep in mind that these interactions change as does the global environment. This paper concludes that throughout most of the 20th century realism provided a clearer explanation than liberalism, including both World Wars and most of the Cold War. However, examining the current events and issues it is clear that the global political atmosphere has gone through a drastic transformation, precisely following the Cold War. Thus, considering this change it is only fair to conclude that liberalism provides a better explanation and description of the world today. That is not to say that realism is completely discredited nor does this suggest that there will be no room for the realists approach in the future, it still provides valuable lessons and explanations for humanity and perhaps will gain its dominance as the world experiences further transformations.

The Strange New World of Virtual Reality :: Computers Internet Technology

The Strange New World of Virtual Reality Virtual Reality is a creation of a highly interactive computer based multimedia environment in which the user becomes a participant with the computer in a "virtually real" world. We are living in an era characterized by 3D virtual systems created by computer graphics. In the concept called Virtual Reality (VR), the virtual reality engineer is combining computer, video, image-processing, and sensor technologies so that a human can enter into and react with spaces generated by computer graphics. In 1969-70, a MIT scientist went to the University of Utah, where he began to work with vector generated graphics. He built a see-through helmet that used television screens and half-silvered mirrors, so that the environment was visible through the TV displays. It was not yet designed to provide a surrounding environment. It was not until the mid '80's that virtual reality systems were becoming more defined. The AMES contract started in 1985, came up with the first glove in February 1986. The glove is made of thin Lycra and is fitted with 15 sensors that monitor finger flexion, extension, hand position and orientation. Connected to a computer through fiber optic cables. sensor inputs enable the computer to generate an on screen image of the hand that follows the operator's hand movements. The glove also has miniature vibrators in the finger tips to provide feedback to the operator from grasped virtual objects. Therefore, driven by the proper software, the system allows the operator to interact by grabbing and moving a virtual object within a simulated room, while experiencing the "feel" of the object. The virtual reality line includes the Datasuit and the Eyephone. The Dtasuit is an instrumented full-body garment that enables full-body interaction with a computer constructed virtual world. In one use, this product is worn by film actors to give realistic movement to animated characters in computer generated special effects. The Eyephone is a head mounted stereo display that shows a computer made virtual world in full color and 3D. The Eyephone technology is based on an experimental Virtual Interface Environment Workstation (VIEW) design. VIEW is a head-mounted stereoscopic display system with two 3.9 inch television screens, one for each eye. The display can be a computer generated scene or a real environment sent by remote video cameras. Sound effects delivered to the headset increase the realism. It was intended to use the glove and software for such ideas as a surgical simulation, or "3D virtual surgery" for medical students.

History of Ganga River Essay

The Ganges is one of the major rivers of the Indian subcontinent, flowing east through the Gangetic Plain of northern India into Bangladesh. The 2,510 km (1,560 mi) river rises in the western Himalayas in the Uttarakhand state of India, and drains into the Sunderbans delta in the Bay of Bengal. It has long been considered a holy river by Hindus and worshiped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism. It has also been important historically: many former provincial or imperial capitals (such as Patliputra, Kannauj, Kara, Allahabad, Murshidabad,and Calcutta) have been located on its banks. The Ganges Basin drains 1,000,000-square-kilometre (390,000 sq mi) and supports one of the world`s highest densities of humans. The average depth of the river is 52 feet (16 m), and the maximum depth, 100 feet (30 m). The river has been declared as India`s National River. The many symbolic meanings of the river on the Indian subcontinent were spoken to in 1946 by Jawaharlal Nehru in his Discovery of India, The Ganges, above all is the river of India, which has held India`s heart captive and drawn uncounted millions to her banks since the dawn of history. The story of the Ganges, from her source to the sea, from old times to new, is the story of India`s civilization and culture, of the rise and fall of empires, of great and proud cities, of adventures of man. Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest headstreams and their five confluences are given both cultural and geographical emphasis (see the map showing the headwaters of the river). The Alaknanda River meets the Dhauliganga River at Vishnuprayag, the Nandakini River at Nandprayag, the Pindar River at Karnaprayag, and the Mandakini River at Rudraprayag and finally the Bhagirathi River at Devprayag, to form the mainstream, the Ganges. The Bhagirathi is the source stream; it rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gaumukh, at an elevation of 3,892 m (12,769 ft). The headwaters of the Alaknanda are formed by snowmelt from such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Kamet. Ganga River is also said to be the river of supreme Lord Rama and also called â€Å"Ram Ganga† as there is a belief Lord Rama promised while Ganges emerged from his feet that, when He will appear on earth as Lord Rama will reside on the banks of Ganga and her tributaries. Lord Ram then appeared in Ayodhya which is on the banks of Saryu Ganga River, when he went to Janakpuri he crossed River Ganga in Haridwar. During  his 14 years exile from Sita, his wife and brother Lakshmana after leaving Ayodhya his first night stay was at Tamsa River (Ganga tributaries), his second stay was at Shrungverpur which is on the banks of Ganga and with the help of Nishadraj Gruh and Kevat he crossed Ganga, he then went to Triveni sangam, Prayag Raj stayed with Muni Bharadvaj and then marched towards Chitrakoot and stayed there for 11 and half years on Kamadgiri parvat on the banks of Mandakini, holy stream. From there he went to Panchvati and stayed on the bank of Godavari until his wife sitaji was abducted by demon king Ravana. The search for his beloved wife Sita, Lord Rama went to Rameshwaram, as it is said all rivers meet the ocean. Pollution in Ganga River Today, over 29 cities, 70 towns, and thousands of villages extend along the Ganga banks. Nearly all of their sewage – over 1.3 billion liters per day – goes directly into the river, along with thousands of animal carcasses, mainly cattle. Another 260 million liters of industrial waste are added to this by hundreds of factories along the rivers banks. Municipal sewage constitutes 80 per cent by volume of the total waste dumped into the Ganga, and industries contribute about 15 percent. The majority of the Ganga pollution is organic waste, sewage, trash, food, and human and animal remains. Over the past century, city populations along the Ganga have grown at a tremendous rate, while waste-control infrastructure has remained relatively unchanged. Recent water samples collected in Varanasi revealed fecal-coliform counts of about 50,000 bacteria per 100 milliliters of water, 10,000% higher than the government standard for safe river bathing. The result of this pollution is a n array of water-borne diseases including cholera, hepatitis, typhoid and amoebic dysentery. An estimated 80% of all health problems and one-third of deaths in India are attributable to water-borne diseases. The sacred practice of depositing human remains in the Ganga also poses health threats because of the unsustainable rate at which partially cremated cadavers are dumped. In Varanasi, some 40,000 cremations are performed each year, most on wood pyres that do not completely consume the body. Along with the remains of these traditional funerals, there are thousands more who cannot afford cremation and whose bodies are simply thrown into the Ganga. In addition, the carcasses of thousands of dead cattle, which are sacred to Hindus, go into the river each  year. An inadequate cremation procedures contributes to a large number of partially burnt or unburnt corpses floating down the Ganga. Hundreds of corpses burn on the line of wooden pyres. Soot-covered men bustle about, raking in the still-glowing ashes, sweeping them into the river. Gray dust from the pyres floats atop the waves, mixing with flower garlands and foam. The dust and debris resurfaces some distance away, this time, intermixed with polythene bags, empty cans and dirty clothes. This is the holy Ganga at its holiest spot Varanasi. The industrial pollutants also a major source of contamination in the Ganga. A total of 146 industries are reported to be located along the river Ganga between Rishikesh and Prayagraj. 144 of these are in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) and 2 in Uttrakhand. The major polluting industries on the Ganga are the leather industries, especially near Kanpur, which use large amounts of Chromium and other toxic chemical waste, and much of it finds its way into the meager flow of the Ganga. From the plains to the sea, pharmaceutical companies, electronics plants, textile and paper industries, tanneries, fertilizer manufacturers and oil refineries discharge effluent into the river. This hazardous waste includes hydrochloric acid, mercury and other heavy metals, bleaches and dyes, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls highly toxic compounds that accumulate in animal and human tissue. The tannery industry mushrooming in North India has converted the Ganga River into a dumping ground. The tanning industry discharges different types of waste into the environment, primarily in the form of liquid effluents containing organic matters, chromium, sulphide ammonium and other salts. According to the information obtained from the UP State Pollution Control Board, there are 402 tanneries operating in the city Kanpur of which 65 were closed On September 17, 2010 issuing notices to 253 tanneries operating in the city, the State Pollution Control Board has asked them to comply with central norms to curb pollution within 15 days or face consequences. A division bench of the Allahabad high court on January 19, 2011 asked UP chief secretary, who was present in the court, to f ile an affidavit about the action taken against those who were found involved in polluting river Ganga. The bench will now hear this case on February 14, next. The bench expressed concerned over the pollution in river Ganga and said that at Sangam in Allahabad river Ganga is dirty and its colour is brown. Ganga is getting polluted day-by-day. Nearly 170  factories and tanneries located between Kannauj and Varanasi, covering an area of 450 km, were found responsible for polluting the river by discharging wastes into it without treatment,† Union Minister for Environment and Forests Jairam Ramesh told reporters on August 28, 2010. â€Å"The government will issue show cause notices to these industrial units on August 30 and if they fail to take any action within 15 days, steps would be initiated to shut them,† he said. In 1996, the Supreme Court had banned the discharge of effluents from various tanneries and factories located on its banks in Kanpur. However, industry is not the only source of pollution. Sheer volume of waste – estimated at nearly 1 billion litres per day – of mostly untreated raw sewage – is a significant factor. Runoff from farms in the Ganga basin adds chemical fertilizers and pesticides such as DDT, which is banned in the United States because of its toxic and carcinogenic effects on humans and wildlife. Damming the river or diverting its water, mainly for irrigation purposes, also adds to the pollution crisis. Atmospheric deposition of heavy metals emitted from vehicles and presence of industrial units adjoining the Ganges is adding to the pollution load on the river, researchers have found on May 2010. Decades-long efforts by the government to breathe life into Ganga through massive clean-up programmes have come to naught. Consider this: Over Rs 1,000 crore have been pumped into the Ganga Action Plan I and II between 1985 and 2000, but Indias holiest river is still sullied. Discharge of untreated wastewater from towns along Ganga constitutes the major source of pollution load for the river. Against the estimated wastewater generation of around 3000 million liters per day (mld) from towns along the river Ganga, sewage treatment capacity of 1025 mld has been created so far under the Ganga Action Plan. This information was given by the Minister of State for Environment and Forests(Independent Charge) Shri Jairam Ramesh in Rajya Sabha on August 02, 2010. The incidence of gall bladder disease is high among people living near the Ganga and its tributaries, says the largest-ever study of the local population over six years.A team of doctors from Mumbai conducted the study and found high concentrations of heavy metals in the water and soil of 60 villages along the Indo-Gangetic plains that could be contributing to the disease. The study was published last week of January 2011 in the online edition of HPB, the official journal of the International Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary  Association. It has identified eight villages in Bihar’s Vaishali district, located near the river Gandak, with an unusually high rate of gall bladder disease.

Approaches to Management - 2224 Words

Management â€Å"Management is a set of activities directed at an organisation’s resources, with the aim of achieving organisational goals efficiently and effectively.†(Davidson, Simon, Gottschalk, Hunt, Wood amp; Griffin (2006) p.5). Management has been practiced for thousands of years by many different civilisations. As a result there are many different approaches to management, two of which are, the behavioural and contemporary management perspectives. The behavioural perspective recognises the importance of behavioural process in the workplace and emphasises individual attitudes and behaviours, and group processes. The Hawthorne studies are famously associated with this perspective and along with studies on technology and social systems†¦show more content†¦The human relation movement pioneered the evolution of management and lead to the development of Organisational behaviour. Organisational behaviour (OB) is the field of study concerned with human behaviour in organisations. The human relation movement forged many imperative concepts, however many of its assertions were seen as simplistic and although theoretically correct, failed to hold in real working environments. As a result OB was formed to supplement the assumptions made in the human relations movement. OB took a holistic view of behaviour and addresses individuals impact on the organisation as well as the organisation’s impact on the individual. An example of this is the movement’s assumption that â€Å"worker satisfaction leads to improved performance.† (Davidson, Simon, Gottschalk, Hunt, Wood amp; Griffin (2006) p.24). If anything OB suggest otherwise, that is improved productivity leads to satisfaction not the other way. The emergence of OB further established the importance of behavioural processes in the organisation and contributed to changing managerial thinking, by con structing employees as valuable inputs to their system. 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These methods are sociotechnical systems theory, quantitative management, organizational behavior, and systems theory (Bateman Snell, 2013, pp. 24-39). Each approach to management varies to some degree, with a focus on sociology and psychology, or math and science. Each one is affected by or has an effect on the environmen t around them. Over the century, improvementsRead MoreContemporary Approaches to Management611 Words   |  3 PagesContemporary Approaches to Management and their Environments The different approaches to management have been changed, fine tuned and discarded over the years. In the coming paragraphs we will take a look at the contemporary approaches. We will examine how they compare to each other as well as if they can be utilized in the three types of environments; internal, competitive and macro environment. The first approach to management would be the sociotechnical systems theory. Researchers believedRead MoreDIFFERENT APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT4510 Words   |  19 Pages DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT Management was influenced by various disciplines like sociology, economics, political science, anthropology, psychology, and even literature. Due to such multidisciplinary influences, even authors like Harold Koontz (1961) referred to management as a ‘jungle’. Even then, differences exist in the classification of approaches. Although one of the ways to classify management approaches is from the analysis of John G. Hutchinson (1971), which considersRead MoreApproaches to Organisation and Management19498 Words   |  78 Pages2 APPROACHES  TO  ORGANISATION  AND MANAGEMENT Organisational  behaviour  is  a  discursive  subject  and  much has  been  written  about  it.  The  study  of  organisations  and management  has  therefore  to  proceed  on  a  broad  front.  It  is the  comparative  study  of  the  different  approaches  that  will  yield benefits  to  the  manager.  The  study  of  organisations,  their  structure and  management  is  important  for  the  manager.  Identification  of major  trends  in  management  and  organisational  behaviour,  and the  work  of  leading  writersRead MoreDefinition Of Modern Management Approaches925 Words   |  4 PagesEssay#4: Modern Management Approaches The purpose of this essay is to present key insights into methods and approaches to describe modern management in organizations. An organization can be thought of as a system consisting of three parts: task, structure and people society. First modern management techniques are explored through the tasks or functions carried out by managers. Second they are realized through the structure of organization. Third there impacts on people and society are examinedRead MoreEffective Approaches in Leadership and Management1483 Words   |  6 PagesRunning head: LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT Effective Approaches in Leadership and Management Amber Norris Grand Canyon University: NRS-451 April 28, 2013 Effective Approaches in Leadership and Management Nurses are crucial in providing quality care in the health care industry. It is imperative to maintain the proper staffing ratio to ensure that nurses can maintain high quality care for their patients. Studies have shown that the increasing workloadRead MoreLeadership And Management Approaches For Nursing1228 Words   |  5 Pagesimpacting the functioning and success of healthcare organizations. However, leadership and management approaches to the issue can help to improve the nursing environment. Nursing leaders vs Managers The management and leadership are different things but some situations both overlap and sound similar. They focus on different areas and but they both are important in the process to accomplish the desired outcome. Management is defined as the coordination and integration of resources through planning, organizingRead MoreThe And Current Project Management Approaches1643 Words   |  7 Pagesdrawbacks of current projects management. LPDS is the method known as a excellent means that functions on saving resources, and minimuns the costs of projects. ‘Lean production ’ is named by a MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) research group for making the system firstly generated by the Toyota Motor Corporation more easily to accept in implementing projects (Mahsa, 2013). In this article, the comparisons between LPDS and current project management approaches provided in PMBOK will be brieflyRead MoreManagement Approaches and Organizational Perspective1729 Words   |  7 PagesManagement Approaches and Organizational Perspective Introduction: Management, in all business areas and human organizational activities, is the process of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. There are four major schools management thoughts, i.e., the four main management approaches, namely, classical management approach, behavior management approach, quantitative management approach and modern management approach. These four management approaches might be used in